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The Effects of Estrogen Replacement Therapy on Airway Function in Postmenopausal, Asthmatic Women
CPT Matthew J. Hepburn, MC, USA;
COL David P. Dooley, MC, USA;
LTC Michael J. Morris, MC, USA
Arch Intern Med. 2001;161:2717-2720.
ABSTRACT
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Background Data from multiple clinical, epidemiologic, and in vitro studies are
conflicting regarding the effect of estrogen replacement therapy (ERT) on
airway function in postmenopausal women with asthma.
Objective To determine the impact of withdrawal of estrogen administration in
postmenopausal, asthmatic women.
Methods Twenty asthmatic women who were postmenopausal for at least 2 years
and undergoing ERT were recruited for this prospective crossover study. Subjects
continued taking baseline estrogen for 28 days, stopped taking estrogen for
28 days, and then resumed taking the medication for 14 days. Objective measurements
were obtained by recording daily peak flows in the morning and evening and
formal spirometry at days 14, 28, 42, 56, and 70. Compliance was measured
by evaluating serum estradiol levels at days 28 and 56. Daily use of short-acting  -agonist
bronchodilators was also recorded.
Results Differences in estradiol levels indicated compliance with the medication
regimen. The combined day 14 and 28 (taking estrogen) mean percent predicted
forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1) was 77% compared with
the combined day 42 and 56 (not taking estrogen) mean FEV1 of 78%
and the day 70 (taking estrogen again) FEV1 of 76% (P>.05). Average peak flow measurements were 295.5 L/min for the duration
of ERT, 293.9 L/min while not undergoing ERT, and 291.8 L/min when ERT was
restarted for the final 2 weeks of the study (P>.05).
Use of short-acting -agonist bronchodilators did not differ between
study periods.
Conclusion These data indicate that neither the discontinuation nor reinitiation
of ERT in postmenopausal, asthmatic women has any effect on objective measures
of airway obstruction.
INTRODUCTION
THE RELATIONSHIP between sex hormones and asthma is complex. Women are
more commonly admitted to the hospital for asthma compared with men of similar
age.1 A particular subset of asthmatic women
experience premenstrual asthma, with symptoms of wheezing and dyspnea that
worsen corresponding to different phases of the menstrual cycle. Some studies2 suggest that emergency department visits for asthma
exacerbations may be more common during the premenstrual phase, whereas other
studies3 indicate that the preovulatory phase
(days 5-11) is the most common time of presentation.
The relationship between exogenously administered estrogen (as in oral
contraceptives or postmenopausal replacement therapy) and asthma is also inadequately
characterized. In a large cohort study, Troisi et al4
demonstrated an increased incidence of adult-onset asthma among postmenopausal
women undergoing hormone replacement therapy compared with women who did not
receive hormone supplementation. A prospective study of 15 postmenopausal
women noted subclinical deterioration of peak expiratory flow rates (PEFRs)
after estrogen replacement therapy (ERT) was initiated, but no change in symptoms
was noted.5 Variant observations include a
case series of 3 patients, 2 of whom were postmenopausal, whose asthma improved
with hormone replacement therapy.6 These patients
were steroid dependent before initiating ERT and were able to be weaned from
steroids after beginning hormone therapy.
To provide more objective data on the relationship of ERT and asthma,
we designed a prospective crossover study to measure pulmonary function test
(PFT) results and daily PEFRs in postmenopausal, asthmatic women taking and
not taking estrogen.
SUBJECTS AND METHODS
Subjects were recruited from the Internal Medicine, Allergy, and Pulmonary
Clinics at Brooke Army Medical Center, Fort Sam Houston, Tex, from October
1997 to June 2000. Each subject had a history of reversible airway obstruction
by symptoms and met American Thoracic Society guidelines for the diagnosis
of asthma, with symptoms compatible with asthma and a documented abnormality
by PFTs.7-8 These guidelines included
either a decreased forced expiratory volume at 1 second (FEV1)
with an FEV1 increase greater than 12% after a bronchodilator challenge8 or a history of a positive methacholine challenge.
In addition, women had to be postmenopausal for more than 2 years and undergoing
estrogen hormone replacement therapy (0.625 or 1.25 mg/d) for at least 6 months.
Exclusion criteria included any of the following: active tobacco smoking within
the last 5 years, documented chronic obstructive or other concomitant pulmonary
disease, clinical evidence of severe asthma (more than 3 hospital admissions
in the previous year, any history of intubations for asthma), oral steroid
use in the previous 3 months, age older than 70 years, or a history of documented
coronary artery disease. Before enrollment, each subject had a detailed discussion
with the principal investigator and signed a written informed consent document.
The Institutional Review Board at Brooke Army Medical Center reviewed and
approved the investigational protocol and the informed consent document.
A sequential crossover design was used, as depicted in Figure 1. The independent variable was the administration of ERT,
and PFTs, PEFRs, and the daily use of short-acting -agonist inhalers
were the 3 dependent variables measured in this study. The duration of the
study was 70 days per subject. Subjects continued long-term ERT for a 28-day
run-in period, stopped undergoing ERT for 28 days (study days 29-56), and
resumed ERT for the final 14-day period (study days 57-70). The subjects underwent
2 baseline PFTs while undergoing ERT (at days 14 and 28 of the study) followed
by PFTs while not undergoing ERT (days 42 and 56). A final PFT was performed
on day 70, after the subject had resumed ERT for 2 weeks. The PEFR was measured
for each subject twice daily for all 70 days to accommodate any potential
diurnal variation.8
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Figure 1. Study design. Time line depicting
70-day course of estrogen administration, withdrawal, and readministration,
with concurrent measurements. The numbers in the PFT (pulmonary function test)
row indicate the timing of the first through the fifth set of PFTs. The numbers
in the serum estradiol row indicate the timing of the first and second levels.
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Subjects underwent PFTs with a spirometer (Vmax 22 series; Sensormedics,
Yorba Linda, Calif) using standard techniques.8
Three maneuvers were performed, and the highest value was recorded. Predicted
values for spirometry were those of Crapo et al.9
A peak flow meter (Truzone; Monaghan Medical Corp, Plattsburgh, NY) was provided
to each subject to record PEFR in the morning on first awakening and in the
evening (5 to 8 PM). Three maneuvers were performed, and all 3 results were
recorded in a diary at each time point; the maximum value was used for later
analysis. Subjects received a detailed explanation on the correct use of these
peak flow meters and were instructed not to perform peak flow measurements
directly after using their inhalers. The use of short-acting -agonist
inhalers was recorded in a diary. Study participants recorded each episode
of -agonist inhaler use, rather than individual puffs (ie, if a subject
used 2 puffs of her inhaler at 8 AM one morning, she would record the use
of inhalers as 1). Serum estradiol levels were measured on day 28 of ERT and
on day 56 after discontinuation of ERT for 1 month.
Five study subjects were taking progesterone in combination with ERT.
To eliminate progesterone as a possible confounding factor, the use of progesterone
was stopped on day 0 of the study in these subjects. These participants resumed
progesterone after day 70; no subject had substantial vaginal bleeding when
use of the progesterone was restarted. Subjects were instructed to continue
their previously prescribed maintenance medications for asthma and any other
chronic condition.
Statistical comparisons of results were made using a multiple measures
analysis of variance (SPSS standard version; SPSS Inc, Chicago, Ill). Comparisons
were made of the FEV1, PEFR, and the use of inhalers from 3 time
periods: the initial 28 days taking estrogen, the 28 days not taking estrogen,
and the final 14 days taking estrogen. Power analysis predicted that the sample
size of 20 would be sufficient to provide significance at the .05 level with
80% to 85% power, assuming a change in FEV1 of 15% would be clinically
significant.
RESULTS
Twenty-three women were initially recruited for the study. Twenty subjects
completed the investigation. One subject had a clinical diagnosis of asthma,
but on further review of available records did not meet strict American Thoracic
Society criteria for this diagnosis, and her participation was terminated.
One subject was excluded because of elevated serum estradiol levels while
not taking estrogen for 28 days. Another subject was excluded for persistently
low levels of estradiol while taking estrogen. Complete data from 20 patients
were analyzed. Table 1 contains
the demographic characteristics of our patient population. Most of our patients
(15/20) had undergone hysterectomy and were not taking progesterone at study
entry. The average serum estradiol level at day 28 (with baseline estrogen
dose) was 91 pg/mL (range, 31-321 pg/mL) (334 pmol/L [114-1178 pmol/L]), which
indicated adequate oral intake of estrogen during the study period. Serum
estradiol levels on day 56 were substantially lower. Sixteen of 20 women had
levels less than 20 pg/mL (73 pmol/L), the lower limit of the serum estradiol
measurement in our laboratory. Two subjects had estradiol levels slightly
higher than 20 pg/mL (29 and 30 pg/mL) (73 pmol/L [106 and 110 pmol/L]), but
their estradiol levels while undergoing ERT were above 100 pg/mL (105 and
103 pg/mL) (367 pmol/L [385 and 378 pmol/L]). One patient missed her serum
estradiol measurement while not taking estrogen, but reported hot flashes
and emotional lability during the 28 days without estrogen. A final patient
had an 8-point decline in serum estradiol levels from 43 pg/mL (158 pmol/L)
while undergoing ERT to 35 pg/mL (128 pmol/L) while not undergoing ERT, but
she had mild estrogen withdrawal symptoms. Mild estrogen withdrawal symptoms
during the month not undergoing ERT were perceived by 7 of 20 subjects, but
no subject felt the need to be terminated from the study when this option
was offered.
EFFECT OF ESTROGEN MANEUVERS ON SPIROMETRY RESULTS
The mean ± SD percent predicted FEV1, depicted in Figure 2, for each time point was as follows:
day 14, 78.6% ± 22.5%; day 28, 75.6% ± 19.8%; day 42, 76.2%
± 16.1%; day 56, 78.3% ± 15.0%; and day 70, 76.3% ± 14.4%.
Data from days 14 and 28 (taking estrogen) were combined for statistical analysis,
as were the data from days 42 and 56 (not taking estrogen). No differences
were found when these data were compared with each other or with the day 70
data (P>.05). No individual subject demonstrated
significant changes in FEV1 throughout the study period as well.
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Figure 2. Mean percent predicted forced
expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1) vs time. Combined data from
20 subjects are depicted. Error bars depict ±SD. Horizontal bars indicate
periods of estrogen administration.
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EFFECT OF ESTROGEN MANEUVERS ON PEFRs
One patient, whose percent predicted FEV1 ranged from 75%
to 80%, was excluded from the analysis of PEFR data because of erratic readings
that were more than 160% above predicted values. Daily maximum individual
PEFRs were combined by study period for descriptive presentation and analysis.
Mean ± SD PEFRs (Figure 3)
for all subjects were 295.5 ± 76.2 L/min during days 1 to 28 (taking
estrogen) compared with 293.9 ± 80.1 L/min during days 29 to 56 (not
taking estrogen) and 291.8 ± 76.5 L/min during days 57 to 70 (taking
estrogen) (P>.05).
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Figure 3. Mean peak expiratory flow rate
(PEFR) vs time. Mean values of the maximum PEFR from the 20 subjects in the
mornings and evenings of each day are depicted. Horizontal bars indicate periods
of estrogen administration.
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EFFECT OF ESTROGEN MANEUVERS ON USE OF BRONCHODILATORS
Two subjects were unable to adequately document inhaler use in their
diaries. Eighteen of 20 subjects in the study recorded and submitted adequate
diaries. The mean (SD) daily use of inhalers was 1.5 (1.4) (range, 0-5) from
days 1 to 28, 1.1 (1.1) (range, 0-4) from days 29 to 56, and 1.1 (1.1) (range,
0-4) from days 57 to 70 (P>.05).
COMMENT
These prospective data indicate that in a population of postmenopausal,
asthmatic women undergoing ERT, discontinuation and reinitiation of ERT did
not affect objective measurements of asthma. Our study presents alternative
data to previously published basic science data, epidemiologic analyses, case
series, and one prospective study that suggest that asthma may worsen when
patients are exposed to estrogen.
Data from in vitro studies suggest that estrogen may be instrumental
in both the potentiation and relief of bronchial smooth muscle contraction10-11; this effect, however, may be modulated
by progesterone.11 Observational studies also
conflict regarding the effect of the estrogen milieu on asthma, whether controlled6, 12 or not controlled2-3,13-18
for progesterone effect. When ERT was prescribed to postmenopausal women who
did not have asthma, no differences in FEV1 measurements could
be detected.19
Data from the Nurses Health Study,4 a
large observational epidemiologic analysis, suggest a slight increase in the
relative risk (RR) of asthma among postmenopausal women who ever underwent
ERT (RR, 1.49; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.1-2.0) or were currently undergoing
ERT (RR, 1.50; 95% CI, 0.98-2.30). This study used the self-reported physician
diagnosis of asthma as its main outcome measure, although it presented no
objective documentation of asthma by the participants. In addition to selection
biases, the self-report outcome measures of asthma and ERT administration
could have significantly biased these data.4
In a prospective study with a similar design to ours, Lieberman et al5 demonstrated a small but statistically significant
decrease in PEFR measurements (241.0 L/min before starting ERT vs 226.7 L/min
after starting ERT) among 15 perimenopausal women when first starting ERT.
The decrease of 14.3 L/min was imperceptible to the subjects, and the clinical
significance of a small decline in PEFR was unclear. Their study did not reveal
a statistically significant difference in spirometry data measuring FEV1 when starting ERT. Instead of oral estrogen replacement, their study
used estrogen transdermal patches, which is prescribed for a few patients
in the United States.20 The adequacy of the
estrogen intervention could be questioned in this study, because there was
no objective evidence that study subjects had ceased to produce endogenous
estrogen and no mechanism to monitor absorption of estrogen from the patches
except for the improvement of perimenopausal symptoms.
Our study demonstrated no differences in spirometry or PEFR measurements
when ERT was stopped in postmenopausal, asthmatic women. Our subjects included
women with mild-to-severe asthma, as demonstrated by the wide variety of baseline
FEV1 and PEFR values. Our population was carefully selected to
eliminate confounding variables, such as smoking, chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease, and corticosteroid use. The collection of data throughout 1-month
trial intervals permitted the detection of both acute and subacute changes.
Our data are not consistent with the observations of Lieberman et al,5 since they noted worsening objective PEFRs when ERT
was initiated in women with preexisting asthma. Although we studied a slightly
different population (women undergoing stable ERT), no worsening of objective
measurements of airway obstruction was observed when our subjects began taking
estrogen again (from days 57-70).
One of the limitations of our study is the possibility of selection
bias by including subjects with asthma who were already undergoing ERT. Any
women who might have a problematic reaction to estrogen (either asthma or
other complications) might have discontinued ERT, and these women would be
excluded from this study. However, if estrogen had an overall effect on bronchial
reactivity, we would have expected to observe at least subtle changes in airflow
measurements during this study. It is possible that worsening of asthma with
estrogen is a rare effect only seen in a small number of women, and thus may
be detectable in an epidemiologic study but not observed in a smaller sample
population measured objectively.
The sample size and exclusion criteria of this study could limit its
applicability for all asthmatic women. Women with corticosteroid-dependent
asthma, women older than 70 years, and smokers were not studied, and ERT may
have a different effect in these subpopulations. The role of progesterone
was deliberately not investigated in our study. Seasonal variation could also
affect the results of our study. To minimize the impact of seasonal variability,
subjects participated throughout the year, and the double-crossover design
was used to control for temporal changes in seasonal allergen exposures.
The clinician faced with an asthmatic patient undergoing long-term ERT
must consider whether discontinuing hormonal therapy may be beneficial to
the patient. Our data suggest that discontinuation of ERT would have neither
a beneficial nor deleterious effect in these patients. These data support
previous recommendations that, until data to the contrary are available, ERT
should not be withheld from postmenopausal women.21-22
AUTHOR INFORMATION
Accepted for publication April 19, 2001.
Presented in part at the Army American College of Physicians Regional
Meeting, Reston, Va, November 18-21, 1998, and South Texas American College
of Physicians Meeting, San Antonio, Tex, May 7, 1999.
The opinions or assertions contained herein are the private views of
the authors and are not to be construed as reflecting the views of the US
Department of the Army or the US Department of Defense.
We thank John A. Ward, PhD, for his assistance with the statistical
analysis.
Corresponding author and reprints: CPT Matthew J. Hepburn, MC, USA,
Brooke Army Medical Center, MCHE MDI 4W, 3851 Roger Brooke Dr, Fort Sam Houston,
TX 78234-6200 (e-mail: matthew.hepburn{at}cen.amedd.army.mil).
From the Department of Internal Medicine, Brooke Army Medical Center,
Fort Sam Houston, Tex.
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